Roman Letters: A Digital Corpus of Late Antique Correspondence

Vander Galien, Craig

doi:10.5281/zenodo.19142059

Letter 66

I HAVE just seen my former school-mate Claranus for the first time in many years. You need not wait for me to add that he is an old man; but I assure you that I found him hale in spirit and sturdy, although he is wresthng with a frail and feeble body. For Nature acted unfairly when she gave him a poor domicile for so rare a soul; or perhaps it was because she wished to prove to us that an absolutely strong and happy mind can lie hidden under any exterior. Be that as it may, Claranus overcomes all these hindrances, and by despising his own body has arrived at a stage where he can despise other things also. The poet who sang Worth shows more pleasing in a form that's fair, is, in my opinion, mistaken. For virtue needs nothing to set it off; it is its own great glory, and it hallows the body in which it dwells. At any rate, I have begun to regard Claranus in a different light; he seems to me handsome, and as well-setup in body as in mind. A great man can spring from a hovel; so can a beautiful and great soul from an ugly and insignificant body. For this reason Nature seems to -------- a Vergil, Aeneid, v. 344. <Ep2-3> me to breed certain men of this stamp with the idea of proving that virtue springs into birth in any place whatever. Had it been possible for her to produce souls by themselves and naked, she would have done so; as it is, Nature does a still greater thing, for she produces certain men who, though hampered in their bodies, none the less break through the obstruction. I think Claranus has been produced as a pattern, that we might be enabled to understand that the soul is not disfigured by the ugliness of the body, but rather the opposite, that the body is beautified by the comeliness of the soul. Now, though Claranus and I have spent very few days together, we have nevertheless had many conversations, which I will at once pour forth and pass on to you. The first day we investigated this problem: how can goods be equal if they are of three kinds? For certain of them, according to our philosophical tenets, are primary, such as joy, peace, and the welfare of one's country. Others are of the second order, moulded in an unhappy material, such as the endurance of suffering, and self-control during severe illness. We shall pray outright for the goods of the first class; for the second class we shall pray only if the need shall arise. There is still a third variety. as, for example, a modest gait, a calm and honest countenance, and a bearing that suits the man of wisdom. Now how can these things be equal when we compare them, if you grant that we ought to pray for the one and avoid the other? If we would make distinetions among them, we had better return to the First Good, and consider what its nature is: the soul that gazes upon truth, that is skilled in what should be sought and what should <Ep2-5> be avoided, establishing standards of value not according to opinion, but according to nature,-the soul that penetrates the whole world and directs its contemplating gaze upon all its Phenomena, paying strict attention to thoughts and actions, equally great and forceful, superior alike to hardships and blandishments, yielding itself to neither extreme of fortune, rising above all blessings and tribulations, absolutely beautiful, perfectly equipped with grace as well as with strength, healthy and sinewy, unruffled, undismayed, one which no violence can shatter, one which acts of chance can neither exalt nor depress, - a soul like this is virtue itself. There you have its outward appearance, if it should ever come under a single view and show itself once in all its completeness. But there are many aspects of it. They unfold themselves according as life varies and as actions differ; but virtue itself does not become less or greater. For the Supreme Good cannot diminish, nor may virtue retrograde; rat|her is it transformed, now into one quality and now into another, shaping itself according to the part which it is to play. Whatever it has touched it brings into likeness with itself, and dyes with its own colour, It adorns our actions, our friendships, and sometimes entire households which it has entered and set in order. Whatever it has handled it forthwith makes lovable, notable, admirable. Therefore the power and the greatness of virtue cannot rise to greater heights, because increase is denied to that which is superlatively great. You will find nothing straighter than the straight, nothing truer than the truth, and nothing more temperate than that which is temperate. Every virtue is <Ep2-7> limitless; for limits depend upon definite measurements. Constancy cannot advance further, any more than fidelity, or truthfulness, or loyalty. What can be added to that which is perfect? Nothin; otherwise that was not perfect to which something has been added. Nor can anything be added to virtue, either, for if anything can be added thereto, it must have contained a defect. Honour , also, permits of no addition; for it is honourable because of the very qualities which I have mentioned. What then? Do you think that propriety, justice, lawfulness, do not also helong to the same type, and that they are kept within fixed limits? The ability to increase is proof that a thing is still imperfect. The good, in every instance, is subject to these same laws. The advantage of the state and that of the individual are yoked together; indeed it is as impossible to separate them as to separate the commendable from the desirable. Therefore, virtues are mutually equal; and so are the works of virtue, and all men who are so fortunate as to possess these virtues. But, since the virtues of plants and of animals are perishable, they are also frail and fleeting and uncertain. They spring up, and they sink down again, and for this reason they are not rated at the same value; but to human virtues only one rule applies. For right reason is single and of but one kind. Nothing is more divine than the divine, or more heavenly than the heavenly. Mortal things decay, fall, are worn out, grow up, are exhausted, and replenished. Hence, in their case, in view of the uncertainty of their lot, there is inequality; but of things divine the nature is one. Reason, however, is nothindg else than a portion of the divine spirit set <Ep2-9> in a human body. If reason is divine, and the good in no case lacks reason, then the good in every case is divine. And furthermore, there is no distinction between things divine; hence there is none between goods, either. Therefore it follows that joy and a brave unyielding endu both there is the same greatness of soul relaxed and cheerful in the one case, in the other combative and braced for action. What? Do you not think that the virtue of him who bravely storms the enemy's stronghold is equal to that of him who endures a siege with the utmost patience ? Great is Scipio when he invests Numantia, and constrains and compels the hands of an enemy, whom he could not conquer, to resort to their own destruction. Great also are the souls of the defenders -men who know that, as long as the path to death lies open, the blockade is not complete, men who breathe their last in the arms of liberty. In like manner, the other virtues are also equal as compared with one another: tranquillity, simplicity , generosity , constancy , equanimity, endurance. For underlying them all is a single virtue - that which renders the soul straight and unswerving. "What then," you say; "is there no difference between joy and unyielding endurance of pain?" None at all, as regards the virtues themselves; very great, however, in the circumstances in which either of these two virtues is displayed. In the one case, there is a natural relaxation and loosening of the soul; in the other there is an unnatural pain. Hence these circumstances, between which a great distinction can be drawn, belong to the category of indifferent things, but the virtue shown in each case is equal. Virtue is not changed by the matter with <Ep2-11> which it deals; if the matter is hard and stubborn, it does not make the virtue worse; if pleasant and joyous, it does not make it better. Therefore, virtue necessarily remains equall. For, in each case, what is done is done with equal uprightness, with equal wisdom, and with equal honour . Hence the states of goodness involved are equal, and it is impossible for a man to transcend these states of goodness by conducting himself better, either the one man in his joy, or the other amid his suffering. And two goods, neither of which can possibly be better, are equal. For if things which are extrinsic to virtue can either diminish or increase virtue, then that which is honourable ceases to be the only good. If you grant this, honour has wholly perished. And why? Let me tell you: it is because no act is honourable that is done by an unwilling agent, that is compulsory. Every honourable act is voluntary. Alloy it with reluctance, complaints, cowardice, or fear, and it loses its best characteristic - self-approval. That which is not free cannot be honourable; for fear means slavery . The honourable is wholly free from anxiety and is calm; if it ever objects, laments, or regards anything as an evil, it becomes subject to disturbance and begins to flounder about amid great confusion. For on one side the semblance of right calls to it, on the other the suspicion of evil drags it back, therefore, when a man is about to do something honourable, he should not regard any obstacles as evils, even though he regard them as inconvenient, but he should will to do the deed, and do it willingly. For every honourable act is done without commands or compulsion; it is unalloyed and contains no admixture of evil. I know what you may reply to me at this point: <Ep2-13> "Are you trying to make us believe that it does not matter whether a man feels joy, or whether he lies upon the rack and tires out his torturer?" I might say in answer: "Epicurus also maintains that the wise man, though he is being burned in the bull of Phalaris,a will cry out: 'Tis pleasant, and concerns me not at all.'" Why need you wonder, if I maintain that he who reclines at a banquet and the victim who stoutly withstands torture possess equal goods, when Epicurus maintains a thing that is harder to believe, namely, that it is pleasant to be roasted in this way? But the reply which I do make, is that there is great difference between joy and pain; if I am asked to choose, I shall seek the former and avoid the latter. The former is according to nature, the latter contrary to it. So long as they are rated by this standard, there is a great gulf between; but when it comes to a question of the virtue involved, the virtue in each case is the same, whether it comes through joy or through sorrow. Vexation and pain and other inconveniences are of no consequence, for they are overcome by virtue. Just as the brightness of the sun dims all lesser lights, so virtue, by its own greatness, shatters and overwhelms all pains, annoyances, and wrongs; and wherever its radiance reaches, all lights which shine without the help of virtue are extinguished; and inconveniences, when they come in contact with virtue, play no more important a part than does a storm-cloud at sea. This can be proved to you by the fact that the good man will hasten unhesitatingly to any noble deed; even though he be confronted by the hangman, the torturer, and the stake, he will persist, regarding not what be must suffer, but what he must do; and <Ep2-15> he will entrust himself as readily to an honourable deed as he would to a good man; he will consider it advantageous to himself, safe, propitious. And he will hold the same view concerning an honourable deed, even though it be fraught with sorrow and hardship, as concerning a good man who is poor or wasting away in exile. Come now, contrast a good man who is rolling in wealth with a man who has nothing, except that in himself he has all things; they will be equally good, though they experience unequal fortune. This same standard, as I have remarked, is to be applied to things as well as to men; virtue is just as praiseworthy if it dwells in a sound and free body, as in one which is sickly or in bondage. Therefore, as regards your own virtue also, you will not praise it any more, if fortune has favoured it by granting you a sound body, than if fortune has endowed you with a body that is crippled in some member, since that would mean rating a master low because he is dressed like a slave. For all those things over which Chance holds sway are chattels, money, person, position; they are weak, shifting, prone to perish, and of uncertain tenure. On the other hand, the works of virtue are free and unsubdued, neither more worthy to be sought when fortune treats them kindly, nor less worthy when any adversity weighs upon them. Now friendship in the case of men corresponds to desirability in the case of things. You would not, I fancy, love a good man if he were rich any more than if he were poor, nor would you love a strong and muscular person more than one who was slender and of delicate constitution. Accordingly, neither will you seek or love a good thing that is mirthful and tranquil more than one that is full of perplexity <Ep2-17> and ton. Or, if you do this, you in the case of two equally good men, care more for him who is neat and well-groomed than for him who is dirty and unkempt, You would next go so far as to care more for a good man who is sound in all his limbs and without blemish, than for one who is weak or purblind; and gradually your fastidiousness would reach such a point that, of two equally just and prudent men, you would choose him who has long curling hair! Whenever the virtue in each one is equal, the inequality in their other attributes is not apparent. For all other things are not parts, but merely accessories. Would any man judge his children so unfairly as to care more for a healthy son than for one who was sickly, or for a tall child of unusual stature more than for one who was short or of middling height? Wild beasts show no favouritism among their offspring; they lie down in order to suckle all alike; birds make fair distribution of their food. Ulysses hastens back to the rocks of his Ithaca as eagerly as Agamemnon speeds to the kingly walls of Mycenae. For no man loves his native land because it is great; he loves it because it is his own." And what is the purpose of all this? That you may know that virtue regards all her works in the same light, as if they were her children, showing equal kindness to all, and still deeper kindness to those which encounter hardships; for even parents lean with more affection towards those of their offspring for whom they feel pity. Virtue, too, does not necessarily love more deeply those of her works which she beholds in trouble and under heavy burdens, but, like good parents, she gives them more of ber fostering care. Why is no good greater than any other good? <Ep2-19> It is because nothing can be more fitting than that which is fitting, and nothing more level than that which is level. You cannot say that one thing is more equal to a given object than another thing; hence also nothing is more honourable than that which is honourable. Accordingly, if all the virtues are by nature equal, the three varietie of goods are equal. This is what I mean: there is an equality between feeling joy with self- control and suffering pain with self-control. The joy in the one case does not surpass in the other the steadfastness of soul that gulps down the groan when the victim is in the clutches of the torturer; goods of the first kind are desirable, while those of the second are worthy of admiration; and in each case they are none the less equal, because whatever inconvenience attaches to the latter is compensated by the qualities of the good, which is so much greater. Any man who believes them to be unequal is turning away from the virtues themselves and is surveying mere externals; true goods have the same weight and the same width. The spurious sort contain much emptiness; hence, when they are weighed in the balance, they are found wanting, although they look imposing and grand to the gaze. Yes, my dear Lucilius, the good which true reason approves is solid and everlasting; it strengthens the spirit and exalts it, so that it will always be on the heights; but those things which are thoughtlessly praised, and are goods in the opinion of the mob merely puff us up with empty joy. And again, those things which are feared as if they were evils merely inspire trepidation in men's minds, for the mind is disturbed by the semblance of danger, just as animals are disturbed. Hence it is without <Ep2-21> reason that both these things distract and sting the spirit; the one is not worthy of joy, nor the other of fear. It is reason alone that is unchangeable, that holds fast to its decisions. For reason is not a slave to the senses, but a ruler over them. Reason is equal to reason, as one straight line to another; therefore virtue also is equal to virtue. Virtue is nothing else than right reason. All virtues are reasons. Reasons are reasons, if they are right reasons. If they are right, they are also equal. As reason is, so also are actions; therefore all actions are equal. For since they resemble reason, they also resemble each other. Moreover, I hold that actions are equal to each other in so far as they are honourable and right actions. There will be, of course, great differences according as the material varies, as it becomes now broader and now narrower, now glorious and now base, now manifold in scope and now limited. However, that which is best in all these cases is equa]; they are all honourable. In the same way, all good men, in so far as they are good, are equal. There are, indeed, differences of age, one is older, another younger; of body, - one is comely, another is ugly; of fortune, - this man is rich, that man poor, this one is influential, powerful, and well-known to cities and peoples, that man is unknown to most, and is obscure. But all, in respect of that wherein they are good, are equal. The senses do not decide upon things good and evil; they do not know what is useful and what is not useful. They cannot record their opinion unless they are brought face to face with a fact; they can neither see into the future nor recollect the past; and they do not know what results from what. But it is from such knowledge that a sequence and <Ep2-23> succession of actions is woven, and a unity of life is created, - a unity which will proceed in a straight course. Reason, therefore, is the judge of good and evil; that which is foreign and external she regards as dross, and that which is neither good nor evil she judges as merely accessory, insignificant and trivial. For all her good resides in the soul. But there are certain goods which reason regards as primary, to which she addresses herself purposely; these are, for example, victory, good children, and the welfare of one's country. Certain others she regards as secondary; these become manifest only in adversity, - for example, equanimity in enduring severe illness or exile. Certain goods are indifferent; these are no more according to nature than contrary to nature, as, for example, a discreet gait and a sedate posture in a chair. For sitting is an act that is not less according to nature than standing or walking. The two kinds of goods which are of a higher order are different; the primary are according to nature, - such as deriving joy from the dutiful behaviour of one's children and from the well-being of one's country. The secondary are contrary to nature, - such as fortitude in resisting torture or in enduring thirst when illness makes the vitals feverish. "What then," you say; "can anything that is contrary to nature be a good?" Of course not; but that in which this good takes its rise is sometimes contrary to nature. For being wounded, wasting away over a fire, being afflicted with had health, - such things are contrary to nature; but it is in accordance with nature for a man to preserve an indomitable soul amid such distresses. To explain my thought briefly, the material with which a good is concerned is sometimes contrary to nature, <Ep2-25> EPISITLE LXVI. but a good itself never is contrary, since no good is without reason, and reason is in accordanee with nature. " "What, then," you ask, "is reason?" It is copying nature. "And what," you say, "is the greatest good that man can possess?" It is to conduct oneself according to what nature wills. "There is no doubt," says the objector, "that peace affords more happiness when it has not been assailed than when it has been recovered at the cost of great slaughter." "There is no doubt also," he continues, "that health which has not been impaired affords more happiness than health which has been restored to soundness by means of force, as it were, and by endurance of suffering, after serious illnesses that threaten life itself. And similarly there will be no doubt that joy is a greater good than a soul's struggle to endure to the bitter end the torments of wounds or burning at the stake." By no means. For things that result from hazard admit of wide distinctions, since they are rated according to their usefulness in the eyes of those who experience them, but with regard to goods, the only point to be considered is that they are in agreement with nature; and this is equal in the case of all goods. When at a meeting of the Senate we vote in favour of someone's motion, it cannot be said, "A. is more in accord with the motion than B." All alike vote for the same motion. I make the same statement with regard to virtues, - they are all in accord with nature; and I make it with regard to goods also, - they are all in accord with nature. One man dies young, another in old age, and still another in infancy, having enjoyed nothing more than a mere glimpse out into life. They have all been equally subjeet to death, <Ep2-27> even though death has permitted the one to proceed farther along the pathway of life, has cut off the life of the second in his flower, and has broken off the life of the third at its very beginning. Some get their release at the dinner-table. Others extend their sleep into the sleep of death. Some are blotted out during dissipation. Now contrast with these persons individuals who have been pierced by the sword, or bitten to death by snakes, or crushed in ruins, or tortured piecemeal out of existence by the prolonged twisting of their sinews. Some of these departures may be regarded as better, some as worse; but the act of dying is equal in all. The methods of ending life are different; but the end is one and the same. Death has no degrees of greater or less; for it has the same limit in all instances, - the finishing of life. The same thing holds true, I assure you, concerning goods; you will find one amid circumstances of pure pleasure, another amid sorrow and bitterness. The one controls the favours of fortune; the other overcomes her onslaughts. Each is equally a good, although the one travels a level and easy road, and the other a rough road. And the end of them all is the same - they are goods, they are worthy of praise, they accompany virtue and reason. Virtue makes all the things that it acknowledges equal to one another. You need not wonder that this is one of our principles; we find mentioned in the works of Epicurus two goods, of which his Supreme Good, or blessedness, is composed, namely, a body free from pain and a soul free from disturbance. These goods, if they are complete, do not increase; for how can that which is complete increase? The body is, let us suppose, free from pain; what increase can there be to this <Ep2-29> absence of pain? The soul is composed and calm; what increase can there be to this tranquillity? Just as fair meather, purified into the purest brilliancy, does not adinit of a still greater degree of clearness; so, when a man takes care of his body and of his soul, weaving the texture of his good from both, his condition is perfect, and he has found the consummation of his prayers, if there is no commotion in his soul or pain in his body. Whatever delights fall to his lot over and above these two things do not increase his Supreme Good; they merely season it, so to speak, and add spice to it. For the absolute good of man's nature is satisfied with peace in the body and peace in the soul. I can show you at this moment in the writings of Epicurus a graded list of goods just like that of our own school. For there are some things, he declares, which he prefers should fall to his lot, such as bodily rest free from all inconvenience, and relaxation of the soul as it takes delight in the contemplation of its own goods. And there are other things which, though he would prefer that they did not happen, he nevertheless praises and approves, for example, the kind of resignation, in times of ill-health and serious suffering, to which I alluded a moment ago, and which Epicurus displayed on that last and most blessed day of his life. For he tells us that he had to endure excruciating agony from a diseased bladder and from an ulcerated stomach, so acute that it permitted no increase of pain; "and yet," he says, "that day was none the less happy." And no man can spend such a day in happiness unless he possesses the Supreme Good. We therefore find mentioned, even by Epicurus, those goods which one would prefer not to experience; which, however, because circumstances have decided <Ep2-31> thus, must be welcomed and approved and placed on a level with the highest goods. We cannot say that the good which has rounded out a happy life, the good for which Epicurus rendered thanks in the last words he uttered, is not equal to the greatest. Allow me, excellent Lucilius, to utter a still bolder word: if any goods could be greater than others, I should prefer those which seem harsh to those which are mild and alluring, and should pronounce them greater. For it is more of an accomplishment to break one's way through difficulties than to keep joy within bounds. It requires the same use of reason, I am fully aware, for a man to endure prosperity well and also to endure misfortune bravely. What man may be just as brave who sleeps in front of the ramparts without fear of danger when no enemy attacks the camp, as the man who, when the tendons of his legs have been severed, holds himself up on his knees and does not let fall his weapons; but it is to the blood-stained soldier returning from the front that men cry: "Well done, thou hero!" And therefore I should bestow greater praise upon those goods that have stood trial and show courage, and have fought it out with fortune. Should I hesitate whether to give greater praise to the maimed and shrivelled hand of Mucius than to the uninjured hand of the bravest man in the world? There stood Mucius, despising the enemy and despising the fire, and watched his hand as it dripped blood over the fire on his enemy's altar, until Porsenna, envying the fame of the hero whose punisbment he was advocating, ordered the fire to be removed against the will of the victim. Why should I not reckon this good among the primary goods, and deem it in so far greater than <Ep2-33>

[1] Claranum condiscipulum meum vidi post multos annos: non, puto, exspectas ut adiciam senem, sed mehercules viridem animo ac vigentem et cum corpusculo suo colluctantem. Inique enim se natura gessit et talem animum male collocavit; aut fortasse voluit hoc ipsum nobis ostendere, posse ingenium fortissimum ac beatissimum sub qualibet cute latere. Vicit tamen omnia impedimenta et ad cetera contemnenda a contemptu sui venit. [2] Errare mihi visus est qui dixit Non enim ullo honestamento eget: ipsa magnum sui decus est et corpus suum consecrat. Aliter certe Claranum nostrum coepi intueri: formosus mihi videtur et tam rectus corpore quam est animo. [3] Potest ex casa vir magnus exire, potest et ex deformi humilique corpusculo formosus animus ac magnus. Quosdam itaque mihi videtur in hoc tales natura generare, ut approbet virtutem omni loco nasci. Si posset per se nudos edere animos, fecisset; nunc quod amplius est facit: quosdam enim edit corporibus impeditos, sed nihilominus perrumpentis obstantia. [4] Claranus mihi videtur in exemplar editus, ut scire possemus non deformitate corporis foedari animum, sed pulchritudine animi corpus ornari. Quamvis autem paucissimos una fecerimus dies, tamen multi nobis sermones fuerunt, quos subinde egeram et ad te permittam. [5] Hoc primo die quaesitum est, quomodo possint paria bona esse, si triplex eorum condicio est. Quaedam, ut nostris videtur, prima bona sunt, tamquam gaudium, pax, salus patriae; quaedam secunda, in materia infelici expressa, tamquam tormentorum patientia et in morbo gravi temperantia. Illa bona derecto optabimus nobis, haec, si necesse erit. Sunt adhuc tertia, tamquam modestus incessus et compositus ac probus vultus et conveniens prudenti viro gestus. [6] Quomodo ista inter se paria esse possunt, cum alia optanda sint, alia aversanda? Si volumus ista distinguere, ad primum bonum revertamur et consideremus id quale sit. Animus intuens vera, peritus fugiendorum ac petendorum, non ex opinione sed ex natura pretia rebus imponens, toti se inserens mundo et in omnis eius actus contemplationem suam mittens, cogitationibus actionibusque intentus ex aequo, magnus ac vehemens, asperis blandisque pariter invictus, neutri se fortunae summittens, supra omnia quae contingunt acciduntque eminens, pulcherrimus, ordinatissimus cum decore tum viribus, sanus ac siccus, imperturbatus intrepidus, quem nulla vis frangat, quem nec attollant fortuita nec deprimant - talis animus virtus est. [7] Haec eius est facies, si sub unum veniat aspectum et semel tota se ostendat. Ceterum multae eius species sunt, quae pro vitae varietate et pro actionibus explicantur: nec minor fit aut maior ipsa. Decrescere enim summum bonum non potest nec virtuti ire retro licet; sed in alias atque alias qualitates convertitur, ad rerum quas actura est habitum figurata. [8] Quidquid attigit in similitudinem sui adducit et tinguit; actiones, amicitias, interdum domos totas quas intravit disposuitque condecorat; quidquid tractavit, id amabile, conspicuum, mirabile facit. Itaque vis eius et magnitudo ultra non potest surgere, quando incrementum maximo non est: nihil invenies rectius recto, non magis quam verius vero, quam temperato temperatius. [9] Omnis in modo est virtus; modo certa mensura est; constantia non habet quo procedat, non magis quam fiducia aut veritas aut fides. Quid accedere perfecto potest? nihil, aut perfectum non erat cui accessit; ergo ne virtuti quidem, cui si quid adici potest, defuit. Honestum quoque nullam accessionem recipit; honestum est enim propter ista quae rettuli. Quid porro? decorum et iustum et legitimum non eiusdem esse formae putas, certis terminis comprehensum? Crescere posse imperfectae rei signum est. [10] Bonum omne in easdem cadit leges: iuncta est privata et publica utilitas, tam mehercules quam inseparabile est laudandum petendumque. Ergo virtutes inter se pares sunt et opera virtutis et omnes homines quibus illae contigere. [11] Satorum vero animaliumque virtutes, cum mortales sint, fragiles quoque caducaeque sunt et incertae; exsiliunt residuntque et ideo non eodem pretio aestimantur. Una inducitur humanis virtutibus regula; una enim est ratio recta simplexque. Nihil est divino divinius, caelesti caelestius. [12] Mortalia minuuntur cadunt, deteruntur crescunt, exhauriuntur implentur; itaque illis in tam incerta sorte inaequalitas est: divinorum una natura est. Ratio autem nihil aliud est quam in corpus humanum pars divini spiritus mersa; si ratio divina est, nullum autem bonum sine ratione est, bonum omne divinum est. Nullum porro inter divina discrimen est; ergo nec inter bona. Paria itaque sunt et gaudium et fortis atque obstinata tormentorum perpessio; in utroque enim eadem est animi magnitudo, in altero remissa et laxa, in altero pugnat et intenta. [13] Quid? tu non putas parem esse virtutem eius qui fortiter hostium moenia expugnat, et eius qui obsidionem patientissime sustinet? [et] Magnus Scipio, qui Numantiam cludit et comprimit cogitque invictas manus in exitium ipsas suum verti, magnus ille obsessorum animus, qui scit non esse clusum cui mors aperta est, et in complexu libertatis exspirat. Aeque reliqua quoque inter se paria sunt, tranquillitas, simplicitas, liberalitas, constantia, aequanimitas, tolerantia; omnibus enim istis una virtus subest, quae animum rectum et indeclinabilem praestat. [14] 'Quid ergo? nihil interest inter gaudium et dolorum inflexibilem patientiam?' Nihil, quantum ad ipsas virtutes: plurimum inter illa in quibus virtus utraque ostenditur; in altero enim naturalis est animi remissio ac laxitas, in altero contra naturam dolor. Itaque media sunt haec quae plurimum intervalli recipiunt: virtus in utroque par est. [15] Virtutem materia non mutat: nec peiorem facit dura ac difficilis nec meliorem hilaris et laeta; necessest ergo par sit. In utraque enim quod fit aeque recte fit, aeque prudenter, aeque honeste; ergo aequalia sunt bona, ultra quae nec hic potest se melius in hoc gaudio gerere nec ille melius in illis cruciatibus; duo autem quibus nihil fieri melius potest paria sunt. [16] Nam si quae extra virtutem posita sunt aut minuere illam aut augere possunt, desinit unum bonum esse quod honestum. Si hoc concesseris, omne honestum per;t. Quare? dicam: quia nihil honestum est quod ab invito, quod a coacto fit; omne honestum voluntarium est. Admisce illi pigritiam, querelam, tergiversationem, metum: quod habet in se optimum perdidit, sibi placere. Non potest honestum esse quod non est liberum; nam quod timet servit. [17] Honestum omne securum est, tranquillum est: si recusat aliquid, si complorat, si malum iudicat, perturbationem recepit et in magna discordia volutatur; hinc enim species recti vocat, illinc suspicio mali retrahit. Itaque qui honeste aliquid facturus est, quidquid opponitur, id etiam si incommodum putat, malum non putet, velit, libens faciat. Omne honestum iniussum incoactumque est, sincerum et nulli malo mixtum. [18] Scio quid mihi responderi hoc loco possit: 'hoc nobis persuadere conaris, nihil interesse utrum aliquis in gaudio sit an in eculeo iaceat ac tortorem suum lasset?'. Poteram respondere: Epicurus quoque ait sapientem, si in Phalaridis tauro peruratur, exclamaturum, 'dulce est et ad me nihil pertinet'. Quid miraris si ego paria bona dico <alterius in convivio iacentis, alterius inter tormenta fortissime stantis, cum quod incredibilius est dicat Epicurus, dulce esse torreri? [19] Sed hoc respondeo, plurimum interesse inter gaudium et dolorem; si quaeratur electio, alterum petam, alterum vitabo: illud secundum naturam est, hoc contra. Quamdiu sic aestimantur, magno inter se dissident spatio: cum ad virtutem ventum est, utraque par est, et quae per laeta procedit et quae per tristia. [20] Nullum habet momentum vexatio et dolor et quidquid aliud incommodi est; virtute enim obruitur. Quemadmodum minuta lumina claritas solis obscurat, sic dolores, molestias, iniurias virtus magnitudine sua elidit atque opprimit; et quocumque affulsit, ibi quidquid sine illa apparet exstinguitur, nec magis ullam portionem habent incommoda, cum in virtutem inciderunt, quam in mari nimbus. [21] Hoc ut scias ita esse, ad omne pulchrum vir bonus sine ulla cunctatione procurret: stet illic licet carnifex, stet tortor atque ignis, perseverabit nec quid passurus sed quid facturus sit aspiciet, et se honestae rei tamquam bono viro credet; utilem illam sibi iudicabit, tutam, prosperam. Eundem locum habebit apud illum honesta res, sed tristis atque aspera, quem vir bonus pauper aut exul <aut exilis> ac pallidus. [22] Agedum pone ex alia parte virum bonum divitiis abundantem, ex altera nihil habentem, sed in se omnia: uterque aeque vir bonus erit, etiam si fortuna dispari utetur. Idem, ut dixi, in rebus iudicium est quod in hominibus: aeque laudabilis virtus est in corpore valido ac libero posita quam in morbido ac vincto. [23] Ergo tuam quoque virtutem non magis laudabis si corpus illi tuum integrum fortuna praestiterit quam si ex aliqua parte mutilatum: alioqui hoc erit ex servorum habitu dominum aestimare. Omnia enim ista in quae dominium casus exercet serva sunt, pecunia et corpus et honores, imbecilla, fluida, mortalia, possessionis incertae: illa rursus libera et invicta opera virtutis, quae non ideo magis appetenda sunt si benignius a fortuna tractantur, nec minus si aliqua iniquitate rerum premuntur. [24] Quod amicitia in hominibus est, hoc in rebus appetitio. Non, puto, magis amares virum bonum locupletem quam pauperem, nec robustum et lacertosum quam gracilem et languidi corporis; ergo ne rem quidem magis appetes aut amabis hilarem ac pacatam quam distractam et operosam. [25] Aut si hoc est, magis diliges ex duobus aeque bonis viris nitidum et unctum quam pulverulentum et horrentem; deinde hoc usque pervenies ut magis diligas integrum omnibus membris et illaesum quam debilem aut luscum; paulatim fastidium tuum illo usque procedet ut ex duobus aeque iustis ac prudentibus comatum et crispulum malis. Ubi par in utroque virtus est, non comparet aliarum rerum inaequalitas; omnia enim alia non partes sed accessiones sunt. [26] Num quis tam iniquam censuram inter, suos agit ut sanum filium quam aegrum magis diligat, procerumve et excelsum quam brevem aut modicum? Fetus suos non distinguunt ferae et se in alimentum pariter omnium sternunt; aves ex aequo partiuntur cibos. Ulixes ad Ithacae suae saxa sic properat quemadmodum Agamemnon ad Mycenarum nobiles muros; nemo enim patriam quia magna est amat, sed quia sua. [27] Quorsus haec pertinent? ut scias; virtutem omnia opera velut fetus suos isdem oculis intueri, aeque indulgere omnibus, et quidem impensius laborantibus, quoniam quidem etiam parentium amor magis in ea quorum miseretur inclinat. Virtus quoque opera sua quae videt affici et premi non magis amat, sed parentium bonorum more magis complectitur ac fovet. [28] Quare non est ullum bonum altero maius? quia non est quicquam apto aptius, quia plano nihil est planius. Non potes dicere hoc magis par esse alicui quam illud; ergo nec honesto honestius quicquam est. [29] Quod si par omnium virtutum natura est, tria genera bonorum in aequo sunt. Ita dico: in aequo est moderate gaudere et moderate dolere. Laetitia illa non vincit hanc animi firmitatem sub tortore gemitus devorantem: illa bona optabilia, haec mirabilia sunt, utraque nihilominus paria, quia quidquid incommodi est vi tanto maioris boni tegitur. [30] Quisquis haec imparia iudicat ab ipsis virtutibus avertit oculos et exteriora circumspicit. Bona vera idem pendent, idem patent: illa falsa multum habent vani; itaque speciosa et magna contra visentibus, cum ad pondus revocata sunt, fallunt. [31] Ita est, mi Lucili: quidquid vera ratio commendat solidum et aeternum est, firmat animum attollitque semper futurum in excelso. illa quae temere laudantur et vulgi sententia bona sunt inflant inanibus laetos; rursus ea quae timentur tamquam mala iniciunt formidinem mentibus et illas non aliter quam animalia specie periculi agitant. [32] Utraque ergo res sine causa animum et diffundit et mordet: nec illa gaudio nec haec metu digna est. Sola ratio immutabilis et iudicii tenax est; non enim servit sed imperat sensibus. Ratio rationi par est, sicut rectum recto; ergo et virtus virtuti; nihil enim aliud est virtus quam recta ratio. Omnes virtutes rationes sunt; rationes sunt, si rectae sunt; si rectae sunt, et pares sunt. [33] Qualis ratio est, tales et actiones sunt; ergo omnes pares sunt; nam cum similes rationi sint, similes et inter se sunt. Pares autem actiones inter se esse dico qua honestae rectaeque sunt; ceterum magna habebunt discrimina variante materia, quae modo latior est, modo angustior, modo illustris, modo ignobilis, modo ad multos pertinens, modo ad paucos. In omnibus tamen istis id quod optimum est par est: honestae sunt. [34] Tamquam viri boni omnes pares sunt qua boni sunt, sed habent differentias aetatis: alius senior est, alius iunior; habent corporis: alius formosus, alius deformis est; habent fortunae: ille dives, hic pauper est, ille gratiosus, potens, urbibus notus et populis, hic ignotus plerisque et obscurus. Sed per illud quo boni sunt pares sunt. [35] De bonis ac malis sensus non iudicat; quid utile sit, quid inutile, ignorat. Non potest ferre sententiam nisi in rem praesentem perductus est; nec futuri providus est nec praeteriti memor; quid sit consequens nescit. Ex hoc autem rerum ordo seriesque contexitur et unitas vitae per rectum iturae. Ratio ergo arbitra est bonorum ac malorum; aliena et externa pro vilibus habet, et ea quae neque bona sunt neque mala accessiones minimas ac levissimas iudicat; omne enim illi bonum in animo est. [36] Ceterum bona quaedam prima existimat, ad quae ex proposito venit, tamquam victoriam, bonos liberos, salutem patriae; quaedam secunda, quae non apparent nisi in rebus adversis, tamquam aequo animo pati morbum, ignem, exsilium; quaedam media, quae nihilo magis secundum naturam sunt quam contra naturam, tamquam prudenter ambulare, composite sedere. Non enim minus secundum naturam est sedere quam stare aut ambulare. [37] Duo illa bona superiora diversa sunt: prima enim secundum naturam sunt, gaudere liberorum pietate, patriae incolumitate; secunda contra naturam sunt, fortiter obstare tormentis et sitim perpeti morbo urente praecordia. [38] 'Quid ergo? aliquid contra naturam bonum est?' Minime; sed id aliquando contra naturam est in quo bonum illud exsistit. Vulnerari enim et subiecto igne tabescere et adversa valetudine affligi contra naturam est, sed inter ista servare animum infatigabilem secundum naturam est. [39] Et ut quod volo exprimam breviter, materia boni aliquando contra naturam est bonum numquam, quoniam bonum sine ratione nullum est, sequitur autem ratio naturam. 'Quid est ergo ratio?' Naturae imitatio. 'Quod est summum hominis bonum?' Ex naturae voluntate se gerere. [40] 'Non est' inquit 'dubium quin felicior pax sit numquam lacessita quam multo reparata sanguine. Non est dubium' inquit 'quin felicior res sit inconcussa valetudo quam ex gravibus morbis et extrema minitantibus in tutum vi quadam et patientia educta. Eodem modo non erit dubium quin maius bonum sit gaudium quam obnixus animus ad perpetiendos cruciatus vulnerum aut ignium.' [41] Minime; illa enim quae fortuita sunt plurimum discriminis recipiunt; aestimantur enim utilitate sumentium. Bonorum unum propositum est consentire naturae; hoc [contingere] in omnibus par est. Cum alicuius in senatu sententiam sequimur, non potest dici: ille magis assentitur quam ille. Ab omnibus in eandem sententiam itur. Idem de virtutibus dico: omnes naturae assentiuntur. Idem de bonis dico: omnia naturae assentiuntur. [42] Alter adulescens decessit, alter senex, aliquis protinus infans, cui nihil amplius contigit quam prospicere vitam: omnes hi aeque fuere mortales, etiam si mors aliorum longius vitam passa est procedere, aliorum in medio flore praecidit, aliorum interrupit ipsa principia. [43] Alius inter cenandum solutus est; alterius continuata mors somno est; aliquem concubitus exstinxit. His oppone ferro transfossos aut exanimatos serpentium morsu aut fractos ruina aut per longam nervorum contractionem extortos minutatim. Aliquorum melior dici, aliquorum peior potest exitus: mors quidem omnium par est. Per quae veniunt diversa sunt; in [id] quod desinunt unum est. Mors nulla maior aut minor est; habet enim eundem in omnibus modum, finisse vitam. [44] Idem tibi de bonis dico: hoc bonum inter meras voluptates, hoc est inter tristia et acerba; illud fortunae indulgentiam rexit, hoc violentiam domuit: utrumque aeque bonum est, quamvis illud plana et molli via ierit, hoc aspera. Idem enim finis omnium est: bona sunt, laudanda sunt, virtutem rationemque comitantur; virtus aequat inter se quidquid agnoscit. [45] Nec est quare hoc inter nostra placita mireris: apud Epicurum duo bona sunt, ex quibus summum illud beatumque componitur, ut corpus sine dolore sit, animus sine perturbatione. Haec bona non crescunt si plena sunt: quo enim crescet quod plenum est? Dolore corpus caret: quid ad hanc accedere indolentiam potest? Animus constat sibi et placidus est: quid accedere ad hanc tranquillitatem potest? [46] Quemadmodum serenitas caeli non recipit maiorem adhuc claritatem in sincerissimum nitorem repurgata, sic hominis corpus animumque curantis et bonum suum ex utroque nectentis perfectus est status, et summam voti sui invenit si nec aestus animo est nec dolor corpori. Si qua extra blandimenta contingunt, non augent summum bonum, sed, ut ita dicam, condiunt et oblectant; absolutum enim illud humanae naturae bonum corporis et animi pace contentum est. [47] Dabo apud Epicurum tibi etiam nunc simillimam huic nostrae divisionem bonorum. Alia enim sunt apud illum quae malit contingere sibi, ut corporis quietem ab omni incommodo liberam et animi remissionem bonorum suorum contemplatione gaudentis; alia sunt quae, quamvis nolit accidere, nihilominus laudat et comprobat, tamquam illam quam paulo ante dicebam malae valetudinis et dolorum gravissimorum perpessionem, in qua Epicurus fuit illo summo ac fortunatissimo die suo. Ait enim se vesicae et exulcerati ventris tormenta tolerare ulteriorem doloris accessionem non recipientia, esse nihilominus sibi illum beatum diem. Beatum autem diem agere nisi qui est in summo bono non potest. [48] Ergo et apud Epicurum sunt haec bona, quae malles non experiri, sed, quia ita res tulit, et amplexanda et laudanda et exaequanda summis sunt. Non potest dici hoc non esse par maximis bonum quod beatae vitae clausulam imposuit, cui Epicurus extrema voce gratias egit. [49] Permitte mihi, Lucili virorum optime, aliquid audacius dicere: si ulla bona maiora esse aliis possent, haec ego quae tristia videntur mollibus illis et delicatis praetulissem, haec maiora dixissem. Maius est enim difficilia perfringere quam laeta moderari. [50] Eadem ratione fit, scio, ut aliquis felicitatem bene et ut calamitatem fortiter ferat. Aeque esse fortis potest qui pro vallo securus excubuit nullis hostibus castra temptantibus et qui succisis poplitibus in genua se excepit nec arma dimisit: 'macte virtute esto' sanguinulentis et ex acie redeuntibus dicitur. Itaque haec magis laudaverim bona exercitata et fortia et cum fortuna rixata. [51] Ego dubitem quin magis laudem truncam illam et retorridam manum Mucii quam cuiuslibet fortissimi salvam? Stetit hostium flammarumque contemptor et manum suam in hostili foculo destillantem perspectavit, donec Porsina cuius poenae favebat gloriae invidit et ignem invito eripi iussit. [52] Hoc bonum quidni inter prima numerem tantoque maius putem quam illa secura et intemptata fortunae quanto rarius est hostem amissa manu vicisse quam armata? 'Quid ergo?' inquis 'hoc bonum tibi optabis?' Quidni? hoc enim nisi qui potest et optare, non potest facere. [53] An potius optem ut malaxandos articulos exoletis meis porrigam? ut muliercula aut aliquis in mulierculam ex viro versus digitulos meos ducat? Quidni ego feliciorem putem Mucium, quod sic tractavit ignem quasi illam manum tractatori praestitisset? In integrum restituit quidquid erraverat: confecit bellum inermis ac mancus et illa manu trunca reges duos vicit. Vale.

◆

I HAVE just seen my former school-mate
Claranus for the first time in many years. You need not wait for
me to add that he is an old man; but I assure you that I found him hale
in spirit and sturdy, although he is wresthng with a frail and feeble body.
For Nature acted unfairly when she gave him a poor domicile for so rare
a soul; or perhaps it was because she wished to prove to us that an absolutely
strong and happy mind can lie hidden under any exterior. Be that
as it may, Claranus overcomes all these hindrances, and by despising his
own body has arrived at a stage where he can despise other things also.
The poet who sang
Worth shows more pleasing in a form that's fair,
is, in my opinion, mistaken. For virtue needs nothing to set it off;
it is its own great glory, and it hallows the body in which it dwells.
At any rate, I have begun to regard Claranus in a different light; he seems
to me handsome, and as well-setup in body as in mind. A great man
can spring from a hovel; so can a beautiful and great soul from an ugly
and insignificant body. For this reason Nature seems to
--------
a Vergil, Aeneid, v. 344.
<Ep2-3>

me to breed certain men of this stamp with the idea of proving that
virtue springs into birth in any place whatever. Had it been possible
for her to produce souls by themselves and naked, she would have done so;
as it is, Nature does a still greater thing, for she produces certain men
who, though hampered in their bodies, none the less break through the obstruction.
I think Claranus has been produced as a pattern, that we might be enabled
to understand that the soul is not disfigured by the ugliness of the body,
but rather the opposite, that the body is beautified by the comeliness
of the soul.
Now, though Claranus and I have spent
very few days together, we have nevertheless had many conversations, which
I will at once pour forth and pass on to you. The first day we investigated
this problem: how can goods be equal if they are of three kinds? For
certain of them, according to our philosophical tenets, are primary, such
as joy, peace, and the welfare of one's country. Others are of the
second order, moulded in an unhappy material, such as the endurance of
suffering, and self-control during severe illness. We shall pray
outright for the goods of the first class; for the second class we shall
pray only if the need shall arise. There is still a third variety.
as, for example, a modest gait, a calm and honest countenance, and a bearing
that suits the man of wisdom. Now how can these things be equal when
we compare them, if you grant that we ought to pray for the one and avoid
the other? If we would make distinetions among them, we had better
return to the First Good, and consider what its nature is: the soul that
gazes upon truth, that is skilled in what should be sought and what should
<Ep2-5>

be avoided, establishing standards of value not according to opinion,
but according to nature,-the soul that penetrates the whole world and directs
its contemplating gaze upon all its Phenomena, paying strict attention
to thoughts and actions, equally great and forceful, superior alike to
hardships and blandishments, yielding itself to neither extreme of fortune,
rising above all blessings and tribulations, absolutely beautiful, perfectly
equipped with grace as well as with strength, healthy and sinewy, unruffled,
undismayed, one which no violence can shatter, one which acts of chance
can neither exalt nor depress, - a soul like this is virtue itself.
There you have its outward appearance, if it should ever come under a single
view and show itself once in all its completeness. But there are
many aspects of it. They unfold themselves according as life varies
and as actions differ; but virtue itself does not become less or greater.
For the Supreme Good cannot diminish, nor may virtue retrograde; rat|her
is it transformed, now into one quality and now into another, shaping itself
according to the part which it is to play. Whatever it has touched
it brings into likeness with itself, and dyes with its own colour, It adorns
our actions, our friendships, and sometimes entire households which it
has entered and set in order. Whatever it has handled it forthwith makes
lovable, notable, admirable.
Therefore the power and the greatness
of virtue cannot rise to greater heights, because increase is denied to
that which is superlatively great. You will find nothing straighter
than the straight, nothing truer than the truth, and nothing more temperate
than that which is temperate. Every virtue is
<Ep2-7>

limitless; for limits depend upon definite measurements. Constancy
cannot advance further, any more than fidelity, or truthfulness, or loyalty.
What can be added to that which is perfect? Nothin; otherwise that
was not perfect to which something has been added. Nor can anything
be added to virtue, either, for if anything can be added thereto, it must
have contained a defect. Honour , also,
permits of no addition; for it is honourable because of the very qualities
which I have mentioned. What then? Do you think that propriety,
justice, lawfulness, do not also helong to the same type, and that they
are kept within fixed limits? The ability to increase is proof that
a thing is still imperfect.
The good, in every instance, is subject
to these same laws. The advantage of the state and that of the individual
are yoked together; indeed it is as impossible to separate them as to separate
the commendable from the desirable. Therefore, virtues are mutually
equal; and so are the works of virtue, and all men who are so fortunate
as to possess these virtues. But, since the virtues of plants and
of animals are perishable, they are also frail and fleeting and uncertain.
They spring up, and they sink down again, and for this reason they are
not rated at the same value; but to human virtues only one rule applies.
For right reason is single and of but one kind. Nothing is more divine
than the divine, or more heavenly than the heavenly. Mortal things
decay, fall, are worn out, grow up, are exhausted, and replenished.
Hence, in their case, in view of the uncertainty of their lot, there is
inequality; but of things divine the nature is one. Reason, however,
is nothindg else than a portion of the divine spirit set
<Ep2-9>

in a human body. If reason is divine, and the good in no case lacks
reason, then the good in every case is divine. And furthermore, there
is no distinction between things divine; hence there is none between goods,
either. Therefore it follows that joy and a brave unyielding endu
both there is the same greatness of soul relaxed and cheerful in the one
case, in the other combative and braced for action. What? Do
you not think that the virtue of him who bravely storms the enemy's stronghold
is equal to that of him who endures a siege with the utmost
patience ? Great is Scipio when he invests Numantia, and constrains
and compels the hands of an enemy, whom he could not conquer, to resort
to their own destruction. Great also are the souls of the defenders
-men who know that, as long as the path to death lies open, the blockade
is not complete, men who breathe their last in the arms of liberty.
In like manner, the other virtues are also equal as compared with one another:
tranquillity, simplicity ,
generosity , constancy , equanimity,
endurance. For underlying them all is a single virtue - that which
renders the soul straight and unswerving.
"What then," you say; "is there no difference
between joy and unyielding endurance of pain?" None at all, as regards
the virtues themselves; very great, however, in the circumstances in which
either of these two virtues is displayed. In the one case, there
is a natural relaxation and loosening of the soul; in the other there is
an unnatural pain. Hence these circumstances, between which a great
distinction can be drawn, belong to the category of indifferent things,
but the virtue shown in each case is equal. Virtue is not changed
by the matter with
<Ep2-11>

which it deals; if the matter is hard and stubborn, it does not make
the virtue worse; if pleasant and joyous, it does not make it better.
Therefore, virtue necessarily remains equall. For, in each case,
what is done is done with equal uprightness, with equal wisdom, and with
equal honour . Hence the states of
goodness involved are equal, and it is impossible for a man to transcend
these states of goodness by conducting himself better, either the one man
in his joy, or the other amid his suffering. And two goods, neither
of which can possibly be better, are equal. For if things which are
extrinsic to virtue can either diminish or increase virtue, then that which
is honourable
ceases to be the only good. If you grant this, honour has wholly
perished. And why? Let me tell you: it is because no act is
honourable that is done by an unwilling agent, that is compulsory. Every
honourable act is voluntary. Alloy it with reluctance, complaints,
cowardice, or fear, and it loses its best characteristic - self-approval.
That which is not free cannot be honourable; for fear means
slavery . The honourable is wholly free from anxiety and
is calm; if it ever objects, laments, or regards anything as an evil, it
becomes subject to disturbance and begins to flounder about amid great
confusion. For on one side the semblance of right calls to it, on
the other the suspicion of evil drags it back, therefore, when a man is
about to do something honourable, he should not regard any obstacles as
evils, even though he regard them as inconvenient, but he should will to
do the deed, and do it willingly. For every honourable act is done
without commands or compulsion; it is unalloyed and contains no admixture
of evil.
I know what you may reply to me at this
point:
<Ep2-13>

"Are you trying to make us believe that it does not matter whether a
man feels joy, or whether he lies upon the rack and tires out his torturer?"
I might say in answer: "Epicurus also maintains that the wise man,
though he is being burned in the bull of Phalaris,a will cry out: 'Tis
pleasant, and concerns me not at all.'" Why need you wonder, if I maintain
that he who reclines at a banquet and the victim who stoutly withstands
torture possess equal goods, when Epicurus maintains a thing that is harder
to believe, namely, that it is pleasant to be roasted in this way?
But the reply which I do make, is that there is great difference between
joy and pain; if I am asked to choose, I shall seek the former and avoid
the latter. The former is according to nature, the latter contrary to it.
So long as they are rated by this standard, there is a great gulf between;
but when it comes to a question of the virtue involved, the virtue in each
case is the same, whether it comes through joy or through sorrow.
Vexation and pain and other inconveniences are of no consequence, for they
are overcome by virtue. Just as the brightness of the sun dims all
lesser lights, so virtue, by its own greatness, shatters and overwhelms
all pains, annoyances, and wrongs; and wherever its radiance reaches, all
lights which shine without the help of virtue are extinguished; and inconveniences,
when they come in contact with virtue, play no more important a part than
does a storm-cloud at sea.
This can be proved to you by the fact
that the good man will hasten unhesitatingly to any noble deed; even though
he be confronted by the hangman, the torturer, and the stake, he will persist,
regarding not what be must suffer, but what he must do; and
<Ep2-15>

he will entrust himself as readily to an honourable deed as he would
to a good man; he will consider it advantageous to himself, safe, propitious.
And he will hold the same view concerning an honourable deed, even though
it be fraught with sorrow and hardship, as concerning a good man who is
poor or wasting away in exile. Come now, contrast a good man who
is rolling in wealth with a man who has nothing, except that in himself
he has all things; they will be equally good, though they experience unequal
fortune. This same standard, as I have remarked, is to be applied to things
as well as to men; virtue is just as praiseworthy if it dwells in a sound
and free body, as in one which is sickly or in bondage. Therefore,
as regards your own virtue also, you will not praise it any more, if fortune
has favoured it by granting you a sound body, than if fortune has endowed
you with a body that is crippled in some member, since that would mean
rating a master low because he is dressed like a slave. For all those
things over which Chance holds sway are chattels, money, person, position;
they are weak, shifting, prone to perish, and of uncertain tenure.
On the other hand, the works of virtue are free and unsubdued, neither
more worthy to be sought when fortune treats them kindly, nor less worthy
when any adversity weighs upon them.
Now
friendship in the case of men corresponds to desirability in the
case of things. You would not, I fancy, love a good man if he were
rich any more than if he were poor, nor would you love a strong and muscular
person more than one who was slender and of delicate constitution.
Accordingly, neither will you seek or love a good thing that is mirthful
and tranquil more than one that is full of perplexity
<Ep2-17>

and ton. Or, if you do this, you in the case of two equally good
men, care more for him who is neat and well-groomed than for him who is
dirty and unkempt, You would next go so far as to care more for a good
man who is sound in all his limbs and without blemish, than for one who
is weak or purblind; and gradually your fastidiousness would reach such
a point that, of two equally just and prudent men, you would choose him
who has long curling hair! Whenever the virtue in each one is equal,
the inequality in their other attributes is not apparent. For all
other things are not parts, but merely accessories. Would any man
judge his children so unfairly as to care more for a healthy son than for
one who was sickly, or for a tall child of unusual stature more than for
one who was short or of middling height? Wild beasts show no favouritism
among their offspring; they lie down in order to suckle all alike; birds
make fair distribution of their food. Ulysses hastens back to the
rocks of his Ithaca as eagerly as Agamemnon speeds to the kingly walls
of Mycenae. For no man loves his native land because it is great;
he loves it because it is his own."
And what is the purpose of all this?
That you may know that virtue regards all her works in the same light,
as if they were her children, showing equal kindness to all, and still
deeper kindness to those which encounter hardships; for even parents lean
with more affection towards those of their offspring for whom they feel
pity. Virtue, too, does not necessarily love more deeply those of
her works which she beholds in trouble and under heavy burdens, but, like
good parents, she gives them more of ber fostering care.
Why is no good greater than any other
good?
<Ep2-19>

It is because nothing can be more fitting than that which is fitting,
and nothing more level than that which is level. You cannot say that
one thing is more equal to a given object than another thing; hence also
nothing is more honourable than that which is honourable. Accordingly,
if all the virtues are by nature equal, the three varietie of goods are
equal. This is what I mean: there is an equality between feeling
joy with self- control and suffering pain with self-control. The
joy in the one case does not surpass in the other the steadfastness of
soul that gulps down the groan when the victim is in the clutches of the
torturer; goods of the first kind are desirable, while those of the second
are worthy of admiration; and in each case they are none the less equal,
because whatever inconvenience attaches to the latter is compensated by
the qualities of the good, which is so much greater. Any man who
believes them to be unequal is turning away from the virtues themselves
and is surveying mere externals; true goods have the same weight and the
same width. The spurious sort contain much emptiness; hence, when they
are weighed in the balance, they are found wanting, although they look
imposing and grand to the gaze.
Yes, my dear Lucilius, the good which
true reason approves is solid and everlasting;
it strengthens the spirit and exalts it, so that it will always be on the
heights; but those things which are thoughtlessly praised, and are goods
in the opinion of the mob merely puff us up with empty joy. And again,
those things which are feared as if they were evils merely inspire trepidation
in men's minds, for the mind is disturbed by the semblance of danger, just
as animals are disturbed. Hence it is without
<Ep2-21>

reason that both these things distract and sting the spirit; the one
is not worthy of joy, nor the other of fear. It is reason alone that
is unchangeable, that holds fast to its decisions. For reason is
not a slave to the senses, but a ruler over them. Reason is equal
to reason, as one straight line to another; therefore virtue also is equal
to virtue. Virtue is nothing else
than right reason. All virtues are reasons. Reasons are reasons,
if they are right reasons. If they are right, they are also equal.
As reason is, so also are actions; therefore all actions are equal.
For since they resemble reason, they also resemble each other. Moreover,
I hold that actions are equal to each other in so far as they are honourable
and right actions. There will be, of course, great differences according
as the material varies, as it becomes now broader and now narrower, now
glorious and now base, now manifold in scope and now limited. However,
that which is best in all these cases is equa]; they are all honourable.
In the same way, all good men, in so far as they are good, are equal.
There are, indeed, differences of age, one is older, another younger; of
body, - one is comely, another is ugly; of fortune, - this man is rich,
that man poor, this one is influential, powerful, and well-known to cities
and peoples, that man is unknown to most, and is obscure. But all,
in respect of that wherein they are good, are equal. The senses
do not decide upon things good and evil; they do not know what is useful
and what is not useful. They cannot record their opinion unless they are
brought face to face with a fact; they can neither see into the future
nor recollect the past; and they do not know what results from what.
But it is from such knowledge that a sequence and
<Ep2-23>

succession of actions is woven, and a unity of life is created, - a
unity which will proceed in a straight course. Reason, therefore,
is the judge of good and evil; that which is foreign and external she regards
as dross, and that which is neither good nor evil she judges as merely
accessory, insignificant and trivial. For all her good resides in
the soul.
But there are certain goods which reason
regards as primary, to which she addresses herself purposely; these are,
for example, victory, good children, and the welfare of one's country.
Certain others she regards as secondary; these become manifest only in
adversity, - for example, equanimity in enduring severe illness or exile.
Certain goods are indifferent; these are no more according to nature than
contrary to nature, as, for example, a discreet gait and a sedate posture
in a chair. For sitting is an act that is not less according to nature
than standing or walking. The two kinds of goods which are of a higher
order are different; the primary are according to nature, - such as deriving
joy from the dutiful behaviour of one's children and from the well-being
of one's country. The secondary are contrary to nature, - such as
fortitude in resisting torture or in enduring thirst when illness makes
the vitals feverish. "What then," you say; "can anything that is
contrary to nature be a good?" Of course not; but that in which this good
takes its rise is sometimes contrary to nature. For being wounded,
wasting away over a fire, being afflicted with had health, - such things
are contrary to nature; but it is in accordance with nature for a man to
preserve an indomitable soul amid such distresses. To explain my
thought briefly, the material with which a good is concerned is sometimes
contrary to nature,
<Ep2-25>
EPISITLE LXVI. but a good itself never is contrary, since no good is
without reason, and reason is in accordanee with nature.
" "What, then," you ask, "is reason?" It is
copying nature. "And what," you say, "is the greatest good that man can
possess?" It is to conduct oneself according to what nature wills.
"There is no doubt," says the objector, "that peace affords more happiness
when it has not been assailed than when it has been recovered at the cost
of great slaughter." "There is no doubt also," he continues, "that health
which has not been impaired affords more happiness than health which has
been restored to soundness by means of force, as it were, and by endurance
of suffering, after serious illnesses that threaten life itself.
And similarly there will be no doubt that joy is a greater good than a
soul's struggle to endure to the bitter end the torments of wounds or burning
at the stake." By no means. For things that result from hazard admit
of wide distinctions, since they are rated according to their usefulness
in the eyes of those who experience them, but with regard to goods, the
only point to be considered is that they are in agreement with nature;
and this is equal in the case of all goods. When at a meeting of
the Senate we vote in favour of someone's motion, it cannot be said, "A.
is more in accord with the motion than B." All alike vote for the same
motion. I make the same statement with regard to virtues, - they
are all in accord with nature; and I make it with regard to goods also,
- they are all in accord with nature. One man dies young, another
in old age, and still another in infancy, having enjoyed nothing more than
a mere glimpse out into life. They have all been equally subjeet
to death,
<Ep2-27>

even though death has permitted the one to proceed farther along the
pathway of life, has cut off the life of the second in his flower, and
has broken off the life of the third at its very beginning. Some
get their release at the dinner-table. Others extend their sleep
into the sleep of death. Some are blotted out during dissipation.
Now contrast with these persons individuals who have been pierced by the
sword, or bitten to death by snakes, or crushed in ruins, or tortured piecemeal
out of existence by the prolonged twisting of their sinews. Some
of these departures may be regarded as better, some as worse; but the act
of dying is equal in all. The methods of ending life are different;
but the end is one and the same. Death has no degrees of greater
or less; for it has the same limit in all instances, - the finishing of
life.
The same thing holds true, I assure
you, concerning goods; you will find one amid circumstances of pure pleasure,
another amid sorrow and bitterness. The one controls the favours
of fortune; the other overcomes her onslaughts. Each is equally a
good, although the one travels a level and easy road, and the other a rough
road. And the end of them all is the same - they are goods, they
are worthy of praise, they accompany virtue and reason. Virtue makes
all the things that it acknowledges equal to one another. You need
not wonder that this is one of our principles; we find mentioned in the
works of Epicurus two goods, of which his Supreme Good, or blessedness,
is composed, namely, a body free from pain and a soul free from disturbance.
These goods, if they are complete, do not increase; for how can that which
is complete increase? The body is, let us suppose, free from pain;
what increase can there be to this
<Ep2-29>

absence of pain? The soul is composed and calm; what increase
can there be to this tranquillity? Just as fair meather, purified
into the purest brilliancy, does not adinit of a still greater degree of
clearness; so, when a man takes care of his body and of his soul, weaving
the texture of his good from both, his condition is perfect, and he has
found the consummation of his prayers, if there is no commotion in his
soul or pain in his body. Whatever delights fall to his lot over and above
these two things do not increase his Supreme Good; they merely season it,
so to speak, and add spice to it. For the absolute good of man's
nature is satisfied with peace in the body and peace in the soul.
I can show you at this moment in the writings of Epicurus a graded list
of goods just like that of our own school. For there are some things,
he declares, which he prefers should fall to his lot, such as bodily rest
free from all inconvenience, and relaxation of the soul as it takes delight
in the contemplation of its own goods. And there are other things which,
though he would prefer that they did not happen, he nevertheless praises
and approves, for example, the kind of resignation, in times of ill-health
and serious suffering, to which I alluded a moment ago, and which Epicurus
displayed on that last and most blessed day of his life. For he tells
us that he had to endure excruciating agony from a diseased bladder and
from an ulcerated stomach, so acute that it permitted no increase of pain;
"and yet," he says, "that day was none the less happy." And no man can
spend such a day in happiness unless he possesses the Supreme Good.
We therefore find mentioned, even by
Epicurus, those goods which one would prefer not to experience; which,
however, because circumstances have decided
<Ep2-31>

thus, must be welcomed and approved and placed on a level with the highest
goods. We cannot say that the good which has rounded out a happy
life, the good for which Epicurus rendered thanks in the last words he
uttered, is not equal to the greatest. Allow me, excellent Lucilius,
to utter a still bolder word: if any goods could be greater than others,
I should prefer those which seem harsh to those which are mild and alluring,
and should pronounce them greater. For it is more of an accomplishment
to break one's way through difficulties than to keep joy within bounds.
It requires the same use of reason, I am fully aware, for a man to endure
prosperity well and also to endure misfortune bravely. What man may
be just as brave who sleeps in front of the ramparts without fear of danger
when no enemy attacks the camp, as the man who, when the tendons of his
legs have been severed, holds himself up on his knees and does not let
fall his weapons; but it is to the blood-stained soldier returning from
the front that men cry: "Well done, thou hero!" And therefore I
should bestow greater praise upon those goods that have stood trial and
show courage, and have fought it out with fortune. Should I hesitate
whether to give greater praise to the maimed and shrivelled hand of Mucius
than to the uninjured hand of the bravest man in the world? There
stood Mucius, despising the enemy and despising the fire, and watched his
hand as it dripped blood over the fire on his enemy's altar, until Porsenna,
envying the fame of the hero whose punisbment he was advocating, ordered
the fire to be removed against the will of the victim.
Why should I not reckon this good among
the primary goods, and deem it in so far greater than
<Ep2-33>

Latin / Greek Original

[1] Claranum condiscipulum meum vidi post multos annos: non, puto, exspectas ut adiciam senem, sed mehercules viridem animo ac vigentem et cum corpusculo suo colluctantem. Inique enim se natura gessit et talem animum male collocavit; aut fortasse voluit hoc ipsum nobis ostendere, posse ingenium fortissimum ac beatissimum sub qualibet cute latere. Vicit tamen omnia impedimenta et ad cetera contemnenda a contemptu sui venit. [2] Errare mihi visus est qui dixit

Non enim ullo honestamento eget: ipsa magnum sui decus est et corpus suum consecrat. Aliter certe Claranum nostrum coepi intueri: formosus mihi videtur et tam rectus corpore quam est animo. [3] Potest ex casa vir magnus exire, potest et ex deformi humilique corpusculo formosus animus ac magnus. Quosdam itaque mihi videtur in hoc tales natura generare, ut approbet virtutem omni loco nasci. Si posset per se nudos edere animos, fecisset; nunc quod amplius est facit: quosdam enim edit corporibus impeditos, sed nihilominus perrumpentis obstantia. [4] Claranus mihi videtur in exemplar editus, ut scire possemus non deformitate corporis foedari animum, sed pulchritudine animi corpus ornari. Quamvis autem paucissimos una fecerimus dies, tamen multi nobis sermones fuerunt, quos subinde egeram et ad te permittam. [5] Hoc primo die quaesitum est, quomodo possint paria bona esse, si triplex eorum condicio est. Quaedam, ut nostris videtur, prima bona sunt, tamquam gaudium, pax, salus patriae; quaedam secunda, in materia infelici expressa, tamquam tormentorum patientia et in morbo gravi temperantia. Illa bona derecto optabimus nobis, haec, si necesse erit. Sunt adhuc tertia, tamquam modestus incessus et compositus ac probus vultus et conveniens prudenti viro gestus. [6] Quomodo ista inter se paria esse possunt, cum alia optanda sint, alia aversanda?

Si volumus ista distinguere, ad primum bonum revertamur et consideremus id quale sit. Animus intuens vera, peritus fugiendorum ac petendorum, non ex opinione sed ex natura pretia rebus imponens, toti se inserens mundo et in omnis eius actus contemplationem suam mittens, cogitationibus actionibusque intentus ex aequo, magnus ac vehemens, asperis blandisque pariter invictus, neutri se fortunae summittens, supra omnia quae contingunt acciduntque eminens, pulcherrimus, ordinatissimus cum decore tum viribus, sanus ac siccus, imperturbatus intrepidus, quem nulla vis frangat, quem nec attollant fortuita nec deprimant - talis animus virtus est. [7] Haec eius est facies, si sub unum veniat aspectum et semel tota se ostendat. Ceterum multae eius species sunt, quae pro vitae varietate et pro actionibus explicantur: nec minor fit aut maior ipsa. Decrescere enim summum bonum non potest nec virtuti ire retro licet; sed in alias atque alias qualitates convertitur, ad rerum quas actura est habitum figurata. [8] Quidquid attigit in similitudinem sui adducit et tinguit; actiones, amicitias, interdum domos totas quas intravit disposuitque condecorat; quidquid tractavit, id amabile, conspicuum, mirabile facit. Itaque vis eius et magnitudo ultra non potest surgere, quando incrementum maximo non est: nihil invenies rectius recto, non magis quam verius vero, quam temperato temperatius. [9] Omnis in modo est virtus; modo certa mensura est; constantia non habet quo procedat, non magis quam fiducia aut veritas aut fides. Quid accedere perfecto potest? nihil, aut perfectum non erat cui accessit; ergo ne virtuti quidem, cui si quid adici potest, defuit. Honestum quoque nullam accessionem recipit; honestum est enim propter ista quae rettuli. Quid porro? decorum et iustum et legitimum non eiusdem esse formae putas, certis terminis comprehensum? Crescere posse imperfectae rei signum est. [10] Bonum omne in easdem cadit leges: iuncta est privata et publica utilitas, tam mehercules quam inseparabile est laudandum petendumque. Ergo virtutes inter se pares sunt et opera virtutis et omnes homines quibus illae contigere. [11] Satorum vero animaliumque virtutes, cum mortales sint, fragiles quoque caducaeque sunt et incertae; exsiliunt residuntque et ideo non eodem pretio aestimantur. Una inducitur humanis virtutibus regula; una enim est ratio recta simplexque. Nihil est divino divinius, caelesti caelestius. [12] Mortalia minuuntur cadunt, deteruntur crescunt, exhauriuntur implentur; itaque illis in tam incerta sorte inaequalitas est: divinorum una natura est. Ratio autem nihil aliud est quam in corpus humanum pars divini spiritus mersa; si ratio divina est, nullum autem bonum sine ratione est, bonum omne divinum est. Nullum porro inter divina discrimen est; ergo nec inter bona. Paria itaque sunt et gaudium et fortis atque obstinata tormentorum perpessio; in utroque enim eadem est animi magnitudo, in altero remissa et laxa, in altero pugnat et intenta. [13] Quid? tu non putas parem esse virtutem eius qui fortiter hostium moenia expugnat, et eius qui obsidionem patientissime sustinet? [et] Magnus Scipio, qui Numantiam cludit et comprimit cogitque invictas manus in exitium ipsas suum verti, magnus ille obsessorum animus, qui scit non esse clusum cui mors aperta est, et in complexu libertatis exspirat. Aeque reliqua quoque inter se paria sunt, tranquillitas, simplicitas, liberalitas, constantia, aequanimitas, tolerantia; omnibus enim istis una virtus subest, quae animum rectum et indeclinabilem praestat.

[14] 'Quid ergo? nihil interest inter gaudium et dolorum inflexibilem patientiam?' Nihil, quantum ad ipsas virtutes: plurimum inter illa in quibus virtus utraque ostenditur; in altero enim naturalis est animi remissio ac laxitas, in altero contra naturam dolor. Itaque media sunt haec quae plurimum intervalli recipiunt: virtus in utroque par est. [15] Virtutem materia non mutat: nec peiorem facit dura ac difficilis nec meliorem hilaris et laeta; necessest ergo par sit. In utraque enim quod fit aeque recte fit, aeque prudenter, aeque honeste; ergo aequalia sunt bona, ultra quae nec hic potest se melius in hoc gaudio gerere nec ille melius in illis cruciatibus; duo autem quibus nihil fieri melius potest paria sunt. [16] Nam si quae extra virtutem posita sunt aut minuere illam aut augere possunt, desinit unum bonum esse quod honestum. Si hoc concesseris, omne honestum per;t. Quare? dicam: quia nihil honestum est quod ab invito, quod a coacto fit; omne honestum voluntarium est. Admisce illi pigritiam, querelam, tergiversationem, metum: quod habet in se optimum perdidit, sibi placere. Non potest honestum esse quod non est liberum; nam quod timet servit. [17] Honestum omne securum est, tranquillum est: si recusat aliquid, si complorat, si malum iudicat, perturbationem recepit et in magna discordia volutatur; hinc enim species recti vocat, illinc suspicio mali retrahit. Itaque qui honeste aliquid facturus est, quidquid opponitur, id etiam si incommodum putat, malum non putet, velit, libens faciat. Omne honestum iniussum incoactumque est, sincerum et nulli malo mixtum.

[18] Scio quid mihi responderi hoc loco possit: 'hoc nobis persuadere conaris, nihil interesse utrum aliquis in gaudio sit an in eculeo iaceat ac tortorem suum lasset?'. Poteram respondere: Epicurus quoque ait sapientem, si in Phalaridis tauro peruratur, exclamaturum, 'dulce est et ad me nihil pertinet'. Quid miraris si ego paria bona dico <alterius in convivio iacentis, alterius inter tormenta fortissime stantis, cum quod incredibilius est dicat Epicurus, dulce esse torreri? [19] Sed hoc respondeo, plurimum interesse inter gaudium et dolorem; si quaeratur electio, alterum petam, alterum vitabo: illud secundum naturam est, hoc contra. Quamdiu sic aestimantur, magno inter se dissident spatio: cum ad virtutem ventum est, utraque par est, et quae per laeta procedit et quae per tristia. [20] Nullum habet momentum vexatio et dolor et quidquid aliud incommodi est; virtute enim obruitur. Quemadmodum minuta lumina claritas solis obscurat, sic dolores, molestias, iniurias virtus magnitudine sua elidit atque opprimit; et quocumque affulsit, ibi quidquid sine illa apparet exstinguitur, nec magis ullam portionem habent incommoda, cum in virtutem inciderunt, quam in mari nimbus. [21] Hoc ut scias ita esse, ad omne pulchrum vir bonus sine ulla cunctatione procurret: stet illic licet carnifex, stet tortor atque ignis, perseverabit nec quid passurus sed quid facturus sit aspiciet, et se honestae rei tamquam bono viro credet; utilem illam sibi iudicabit, tutam, prosperam. Eundem locum habebit apud illum honesta res, sed tristis atque aspera, quem vir bonus pauper aut exul <aut exilis> ac pallidus. [22] Agedum pone ex alia parte virum bonum divitiis abundantem, ex altera nihil habentem, sed in se omnia: uterque aeque vir bonus erit, etiam si fortuna dispari utetur. Idem, ut dixi, in rebus iudicium est quod in hominibus: aeque laudabilis virtus est in corpore valido ac libero posita quam in morbido ac vincto. [23] Ergo tuam quoque virtutem non magis laudabis si corpus illi tuum integrum fortuna praestiterit quam si ex aliqua parte mutilatum: alioqui hoc erit ex servorum habitu dominum aestimare. Omnia enim ista in quae dominium casus exercet serva sunt, pecunia et corpus et honores, imbecilla, fluida, mortalia, possessionis incertae: illa rursus libera et invicta opera virtutis, quae non ideo magis appetenda sunt si benignius a fortuna tractantur, nec minus si aliqua iniquitate rerum premuntur. [24] Quod amicitia in hominibus est, hoc in rebus appetitio. Non, puto, magis amares virum bonum locupletem quam pauperem, nec robustum et lacertosum quam gracilem et languidi corporis; ergo ne rem quidem magis appetes aut amabis hilarem ac pacatam quam distractam et operosam. [25] Aut si hoc est, magis diliges ex duobus aeque bonis viris nitidum et unctum quam pulverulentum et horrentem; deinde hoc usque pervenies ut magis diligas integrum omnibus membris et illaesum quam debilem aut luscum; paulatim fastidium tuum illo usque procedet ut ex duobus aeque iustis ac prudentibus comatum et crispulum malis. Ubi par in utroque virtus est, non comparet aliarum rerum inaequalitas; omnia enim alia non partes sed accessiones sunt. [26] Num quis tam iniquam censuram inter, suos agit ut sanum filium quam aegrum magis diligat, procerumve et excelsum quam brevem aut modicum? Fetus suos non distinguunt ferae et se in alimentum pariter omnium sternunt; aves ex aequo partiuntur cibos. Ulixes ad Ithacae suae saxa sic properat quemadmodum Agamemnon ad Mycenarum nobiles muros; nemo enim patriam quia magna est amat, sed quia sua. [27] Quorsus haec pertinent? ut scias; virtutem omnia opera velut fetus suos isdem oculis intueri, aeque indulgere omnibus, et quidem impensius laborantibus, quoniam quidem etiam parentium amor magis in ea quorum miseretur inclinat. Virtus quoque opera sua quae videt affici et premi non magis amat, sed parentium bonorum more magis complectitur ac fovet.

[28] Quare non est ullum bonum altero maius? quia non est quicquam apto aptius, quia plano nihil est planius. Non potes dicere hoc magis par esse alicui quam illud; ergo nec honesto honestius quicquam est. [29] Quod si par omnium virtutum natura est, tria genera bonorum in aequo sunt. Ita dico: in aequo est moderate gaudere et moderate dolere. Laetitia illa non vincit hanc animi firmitatem sub tortore gemitus devorantem: illa bona optabilia, haec mirabilia sunt, utraque nihilominus paria, quia quidquid incommodi est vi tanto maioris boni tegitur. [30] Quisquis haec imparia iudicat ab ipsis virtutibus avertit oculos et exteriora circumspicit. Bona vera idem pendent, idem patent: illa falsa multum habent vani; itaque speciosa et magna contra visentibus, cum ad pondus revocata sunt, fallunt. [31] Ita est, mi Lucili: quidquid vera ratio commendat solidum et aeternum est, firmat animum attollitque semper futurum in excelso. illa quae temere laudantur et vulgi sententia bona sunt inflant inanibus laetos; rursus ea quae timentur tamquam mala iniciunt formidinem mentibus et illas non aliter quam animalia specie periculi agitant. [32] Utraque ergo res sine causa animum et diffundit et mordet: nec illa gaudio nec haec metu digna est. Sola ratio immutabilis et iudicii tenax est; non enim servit sed imperat sensibus. Ratio rationi par est, sicut rectum recto; ergo et virtus virtuti; nihil enim aliud est virtus quam recta ratio. Omnes virtutes rationes sunt; rationes sunt, si rectae sunt; si rectae sunt, et pares sunt. [33] Qualis ratio est, tales et actiones sunt; ergo omnes pares sunt; nam cum similes rationi sint, similes et inter se sunt. Pares autem actiones inter se esse dico qua honestae rectaeque sunt; ceterum magna habebunt discrimina variante materia, quae modo latior est, modo angustior, modo illustris, modo ignobilis, modo ad multos pertinens, modo ad paucos. In omnibus tamen istis id quod optimum est par est: honestae sunt. [34] Tamquam viri boni omnes pares sunt qua boni sunt, sed habent differentias aetatis: alius senior est, alius iunior; habent corporis: alius formosus, alius deformis est; habent fortunae: ille dives, hic pauper est, ille gratiosus, potens, urbibus notus et populis, hic ignotus plerisque et obscurus. Sed per illud quo boni sunt pares sunt.

[35] De bonis ac malis sensus non iudicat; quid utile sit, quid inutile, ignorat. Non potest ferre sententiam nisi in rem praesentem perductus est; nec futuri providus est nec praeteriti memor; quid sit consequens nescit. Ex hoc autem rerum ordo seriesque contexitur et unitas vitae per rectum iturae. Ratio ergo arbitra est bonorum ac malorum; aliena et externa pro vilibus habet, et ea quae neque bona sunt neque mala accessiones minimas ac levissimas iudicat; omne enim illi bonum in animo est. [36] Ceterum bona quaedam prima existimat, ad quae ex proposito venit, tamquam victoriam, bonos liberos, salutem patriae; quaedam secunda, quae non apparent nisi in rebus adversis, tamquam aequo animo pati morbum, ignem, exsilium; quaedam media, quae nihilo magis secundum naturam sunt quam contra naturam, tamquam prudenter ambulare, composite sedere. Non enim minus secundum naturam est sedere quam stare aut ambulare. [37] Duo illa bona superiora diversa sunt: prima enim secundum naturam sunt, gaudere liberorum pietate, patriae incolumitate; secunda contra naturam sunt, fortiter obstare tormentis et sitim perpeti morbo urente praecordia. [38] 'Quid ergo? aliquid contra naturam bonum est?' Minime; sed id aliquando contra naturam est in quo bonum illud exsistit. Vulnerari enim et subiecto igne tabescere et adversa valetudine affligi contra naturam est, sed inter ista servare animum infatigabilem secundum naturam est. [39] Et ut quod volo exprimam breviter, materia boni aliquando contra naturam est bonum numquam, quoniam bonum sine ratione nullum est, sequitur autem ratio naturam. 'Quid est ergo ratio?' Naturae imitatio. 'Quod est summum hominis bonum?' Ex naturae voluntate se gerere.

[40] 'Non est' inquit 'dubium quin felicior pax sit numquam lacessita quam multo reparata sanguine. Non est dubium' inquit 'quin felicior res sit inconcussa valetudo quam ex gravibus morbis et extrema minitantibus in tutum vi quadam et patientia educta. Eodem modo non erit dubium quin maius bonum sit gaudium quam obnixus animus ad perpetiendos cruciatus vulnerum aut ignium.' [41] Minime; illa enim quae fortuita sunt plurimum discriminis recipiunt; aestimantur enim utilitate sumentium. Bonorum unum propositum est consentire naturae; hoc [contingere] in omnibus par est. Cum alicuius in senatu sententiam sequimur, non potest dici: ille magis assentitur quam ille. Ab omnibus in eandem sententiam itur. Idem de virtutibus dico: omnes naturae assentiuntur. Idem de bonis dico: omnia naturae assentiuntur. [42] Alter adulescens decessit, alter senex, aliquis protinus infans, cui nihil amplius contigit quam prospicere vitam: omnes hi aeque fuere mortales, etiam si mors aliorum longius vitam passa est procedere, aliorum in medio flore praecidit, aliorum interrupit ipsa principia. [43] Alius inter cenandum solutus est; alterius continuata mors somno est; aliquem concubitus exstinxit. His oppone ferro transfossos aut exanimatos serpentium morsu aut fractos ruina aut per longam nervorum contractionem extortos minutatim. Aliquorum melior dici, aliquorum peior potest exitus: mors quidem omnium par est. Per quae veniunt diversa sunt; in [id] quod desinunt unum est. Mors nulla maior aut minor est; habet enim eundem in omnibus modum, finisse vitam. [44] Idem tibi de bonis dico: hoc bonum inter meras voluptates, hoc est inter tristia et acerba; illud fortunae indulgentiam rexit, hoc violentiam domuit: utrumque aeque bonum est, quamvis illud plana et molli via ierit, hoc aspera. Idem enim finis omnium est: bona sunt, laudanda sunt, virtutem rationemque comitantur; virtus aequat inter se quidquid agnoscit.

[45] Nec est quare hoc inter nostra placita mireris: apud Epicurum duo bona sunt, ex quibus summum illud beatumque componitur, ut corpus sine dolore sit, animus sine perturbatione. Haec bona non crescunt si plena sunt: quo enim crescet quod plenum est? Dolore corpus caret: quid ad hanc accedere indolentiam potest? Animus constat sibi et placidus est: quid accedere ad hanc tranquillitatem potest? [46] Quemadmodum serenitas caeli non recipit maiorem adhuc claritatem in sincerissimum nitorem repurgata, sic hominis corpus animumque curantis et bonum suum ex utroque nectentis perfectus est status, et summam voti sui invenit si nec aestus animo est nec dolor corpori. Si qua extra blandimenta contingunt, non augent summum bonum, sed, ut ita dicam, condiunt et oblectant; absolutum enim illud humanae naturae bonum corporis et animi pace contentum est.

[47] Dabo apud Epicurum tibi etiam nunc simillimam huic nostrae divisionem bonorum. Alia enim sunt apud illum quae malit contingere sibi, ut corporis quietem ab omni incommodo liberam et animi remissionem bonorum suorum contemplatione gaudentis; alia sunt quae, quamvis nolit accidere, nihilominus laudat et comprobat, tamquam illam quam paulo ante dicebam malae valetudinis et dolorum gravissimorum perpessionem, in qua Epicurus fuit illo summo ac fortunatissimo die suo. Ait enim se vesicae et exulcerati ventris tormenta tolerare ulteriorem doloris accessionem non recipientia, esse nihilominus sibi illum beatum diem. Beatum autem diem agere nisi qui est in summo bono non potest. [48] Ergo et apud Epicurum sunt haec bona, quae malles non experiri, sed, quia ita res tulit, et amplexanda et laudanda et exaequanda summis sunt. Non potest dici hoc non esse par maximis bonum quod beatae vitae clausulam imposuit, cui Epicurus extrema voce gratias egit.

[49] Permitte mihi, Lucili virorum optime, aliquid audacius dicere: si ulla bona maiora esse aliis possent, haec ego quae tristia videntur mollibus illis et delicatis praetulissem, haec maiora dixissem. Maius est enim difficilia perfringere quam laeta moderari. [50] Eadem ratione fit, scio, ut aliquis felicitatem bene et ut calamitatem fortiter ferat. Aeque esse fortis potest qui pro vallo securus excubuit nullis hostibus castra temptantibus et qui succisis poplitibus in genua se excepit nec arma dimisit: 'macte virtute esto' sanguinulentis et ex acie redeuntibus dicitur. Itaque haec magis laudaverim bona exercitata et fortia et cum fortuna rixata. [51] Ego dubitem quin magis laudem truncam illam et retorridam manum Mucii quam cuiuslibet fortissimi salvam? Stetit hostium flammarumque contemptor et manum suam in hostili foculo destillantem perspectavit, donec Porsina cuius poenae favebat gloriae invidit et ignem invito eripi iussit. [52] Hoc bonum quidni inter prima numerem tantoque maius putem quam illa secura et intemptata fortunae quanto rarius est hostem amissa manu vicisse quam armata? 'Quid ergo?' inquis 'hoc bonum tibi optabis?' Quidni? hoc enim nisi qui potest et optare, non potest facere. [53] An potius optem ut malaxandos articulos exoletis meis porrigam? ut muliercula aut aliquis in mulierculam ex viro versus digitulos meos ducat? Quidni ego feliciorem putem Mucium, quod sic tractavit ignem quasi illam manum tractatori praestitisset? In integrum restituit quidquid erraverat: confecit bellum inermis ac mancus et illa manu trunca reges duos vicit. Vale.

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Lucius Annaeus Seneca→Lucilius Juniorc. 63 · seneca #17

Lucius Annaeus Seneca→Lucilius Juniorc. 65 · seneca #86

Lucius Annaeus Seneca→Lucilius Juniorc. 63 · seneca #24

Lucius Annaeus Seneca→Lucilius Juniorc. 65 · seneca #92

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