Letter 46: A letter propounding several cases of conscience. To My Beloved and Venerable Father the Bishop Augustine, Publicola Sends Greeting. It is written: Ask your father, and he will show you; your elders, and they will tell you.

Publicola to my beloved and venerable Father Augustine, greetings. I write to you, Father, burdened with questions that may seem trivial to a man of your learning but that weigh on me because I do not know the answers and cannot find peace until I do. Here is my first question. When our people travel through regions where barbarians have sworn oaths by their own gods — binding themselves, for instance, not to harm travelers who have paid a toll — is it lawful for a Christian to benefit from an oath sworn in the name of false gods? Am I polluted by the barbarian's oath, even though I did not ask for it and would not have sworn it myself? Second: if a Christian landowner's tenants or laborers swear oaths by their pagan gods to protect the estate, does the Christian share in the sin by benefiting from the protection those oaths provide? Third: is it lawful for a Christian to eat food that has been offered to idols, if the food is purchased in the marketplace and the buyer does not know its history? I know these questions may seem like the scruples of an overanxious mind. But I live in a world where paganism is not abstract but immediate — where every transaction, every journey, every meal may bring me into contact with practices that honor false gods. I want to live rightly, but I am not always sure what "rightly" means in the tangled circumstances of daily life. I trust your judgment above all others. Please write back. Your son in Christ, Publicola. [Context: Publicola was a Roman Christian — likely a North African landowner — whose letter reveals the practical moral dilemmas facing Christians in a world still saturated with pagan customs. His questions about oaths, idol-offerings, and barbarian treaties illuminate the messy reality of late Roman life far better than any theological treatise could. Augustine's reply (the following letter) addresses each question with characteristic care.]

Letter 46 (A.D. 398) A letter propounding several cases of conscience. To My Beloved and Venerable Father the Bishop Augustine, Publicola Sends Greeting. It is written: Ask your father, and he will show you; your elders, and they will tell you. Deuteronomy 32:7 I have therefore judged it right to seek the law at the mouth of the priest in regard to a certain case which I shall state in this letter, desiring at the same time to be instructed in regard to several other matters. I have distinguished the several questions by stating each in a separate paragraph, and I beg you kindly to give an answer to each in order. I. In the country of the Arzuges it is customary, as I have heard, for the barbarians to take an oath, swearing by their false gods, in the presence of the decurion stationed on the frontier or of the tribune, when they have come under engagement to carry baggage to any part, or to protect the crops from depredation; and when the decurion certifies in writing that this oath has been taken, the owners or farmers of land employ them as watchmen of their crops; or travellers who have occasion to pass through their country hire them, as if assured of their now being trustworthy. Now a doubt has arisen in my mind whether the landowner who thus employs a barbarian, of whose fidelity he is persuaded in consequence of such an oath, does not make himself and the crops committed to that man's charge to share the defilement of that sinful oath; and so also with the traveller who may employ his services. I should mention, however, that in both cases the barbarian is rewarded for his services with money. Nevertheless in both transactions there comes in, besides the pecuniary remuneration, this oath before the decurion or tribune involving mortal sin. I am concerned as to whether this sin does not defile either him who accepts the oath of the barbarian, or at least the things which are committed to the barbarian's keeping. For whatever other terms be in the arrangement, even such as the payment of gold, and giving of hostages in security, nevertheless this sinful oath has been a real part of the transaction. Be pleased to resolve my doubts definitely and positively. For if your answer indicate that you are in doubt yourself, I may fall into greater perplexity than before. II. I have also heard that my own land-stewards receive from the barbarians hired to protect the crops an oath in which they appeal to their false gods. Does not this oath so defile these crops, that if a Christian uses them or takes the money realized by their sale, he is himself defiled? Do answer this. III. Again, I have heard from one person that no oath was taken by the barbarian in making agreement with my steward, but another has said to me that such an oath was taken. Suppose now that the latter statement were false, tell me if I am bound to forbear from using these crops, or the money obtained for them, merely because I have heard the statement made, according to the scriptural rule: If any man say unto you, This is offered in sacrifice unto idols, eat not, for his sake that showed it. 1 Corinthians 10:28 Is this case parallel to the case of meat offered to idols; and if it is, what am I to do with the crops, or with the price of them? IV. In this case ought I to examine both him who said that no oath was taken before my steward, and the other who said that the oath was taken, and bring witnesses to prove which of the two spoke truly, leaving the crops or their price untouched so long as there is uncertainty in the matter? V. If the barbarian who swears this sinful oath were to require of the steward or of the tribune stationed on the frontier, that he, being a Christian, should give him assurance of his faithfulness to his part of the engagement about watching the crops, by the same oath which he himself has taken, involving mortal sin, does the oath pollute only that Christian man? Does it not also pollute the things regarding which he took the oath? Or if a pagan who has authority on the frontier thus give to a barbarian this oath in token of acting faithfully to him, does he not involve in the defilement of his own sin those in whose interest he swears? If I send a man to the Arzuges, is it lawful for him to take from a barbarian that sinful oath? Is not the Christian who takes such an oath from him also defiled by his sin? VI. Is it lawful for a Christian to use wheat or beans from the threshing-floor, wine or oil from the press, if, with his knowledge, some part of what has been taken thence was offered in sacrifice to a false god? VII. May a Christian use for any purpose wood which he knows to have been taken from one of their idols' groves? VIII. If a Christian buy in the market meat which has not been offered to idols, and have in his mind conflicting doubts as to whether it has been offered to idols or not, but eventually adopt the opinion that it was not, does he sin if he partake of this meat? IX. If a man does an action good in itself, about which he has some misgivings as to whether it is good or bad, can it be reckoned as a sin to him if he does it believing it to be good, although formerly he may have thought it bad? X. If any one has falsely said that some meat has been offered to idols, and afterwards confess that it was a falsehood, and this confession is believed, may a Christian use the meat regarding which he heard that statement, or sell it, and use the price obtained? XI. If a Christian on a journey, overpowered by want, having fasted for one, two, or several days, so that he can no longer endure the privation, should by chance, when in the last extremity of hunger, and when he sees death close at hand, find food placed in an idol's temple, where there is no man near him, and no other food to be found; whether should he die or partake of that food? XII. If a Christian is on the point of being killed by a barbarian or a Roman, ought he to kill the aggressor to save his own life? Or ought he even, without killing the assailant, to drive him back and fight with him, seeing it has been said, Resist not evil? Matthew 5:39 XIII. May a Christian put a wall for defense against an enemy round his property? And if some use that wall as a place from which to fight and kill the enemy, is the Christian the cause of the homicide? XIV. May a Christian drink at a fountain or well into which anything from a sacrifice has been cast? May he drink from a well found in a deserted temple? If there be in a temple where an idol is worshipped a well or fountain which nothing has defiled, may he draw water thence, and drink of it? XV. May a Christian use baths in places in which sacrifice is offered to images? May he use baths which are used by pagans on a feastday, either while they are there or after they have left? XVI. May a Christian use the same sedanchair as has been used by pagans coming down from their idols on a feastday, if in that chair they have performed any part of their idolatrous service, and the Christian is aware of this? XVII. If a Christian, being the of another, has forborne from using meat set before him, concerning which it was said to him that it had been offered in sacrifice, but afterwards by some accident finds the same meat for sale and buys it, or has it presented to him at another man's table, and then eat of it, without knowing that it is the same, is he guilty of sin? XVIII. May a Christian buy and use vegetables or fruit which he knows to have been brought from the garden of a temple or of the priests of an idol? That you may not be put to trouble in searching the Scriptures concerning the oath of which I have spoken and the idols, I resolved to set before you those texts which, by the Lord's help, I have found; but if you have found anything better or more to the purpose in Scripture, be so good as let me know. For example, when Laban said to Jacob, The God of Abraham and the God of Nahor judge between us, Genesis 31:53 Scripture does not declare which god is meant. Again, when Abimelech came to Isaac, and he and those who were with him swore to Isaac, we are not told what kind of oath it was. Genesis 26:31 As to the idols, Gideon was commanded by the Lord to make a whole burnt-offering of the bullock which he killed. Judges 6:26 And in the book of Joshua the Son of Nun, it is said of Jericho that all the silver, and gold, and brass should be brought into the treasures of the Lord, and the things found in the accursed city were called sacred. Joshua 6:19 Also we read in Deuteronomy: Deuteronomy 7:26 Neither shall you bring an abomination into your house, lest you be a cursed thing like it. May the Lord preserve you. I salute you. Pray for me.

EPISTOLA 46 Scripta forte a. 398. Publicola proponit Augustino multas quaestiones solvendas.   Dilecto et venerabili patri Augustino episcopo, Publicola Scriptum est: Interroga patrem tuum, et indicabit tibi; seniores tuos, et dicent tibi 1. Unde et mihi exquirendam legem de ore sacerdotis iudicavi in causa tali: quae qualis sit, per litteras expono; simul etiam ut et ego instruar in diversis causis. Singulas autem quaestiones et diversas, per capitula designari feci, ad quas singillatim dignare respondere. De iureiurando barbarorum per daemones praestito. 1. In Arzugibus, ut audivi, decurioni qui limiti praeest vel tribuno solent iurare barbari, iurantes per daemones suos, qui ad deducendas bastagas pacti fuerint, vel aliqui ad servandas fruges ipsas, singuli possessores vel conductores solent ad custodiendas fruges suscipere, quasi iam fideles, epistolam decurione mittente, vel singuli transeuntes quibus necesse est per eos transire. Mihi autem disceptatio in corde nata est, si ille possessor qui susceperit barbarum, cuius fides per daemonum iurationem firma visa est, non coinquinatur vel ipse, vel illa quae custodit, vel ille qui deducitur a deductore barbaro. Sed hoc debes scire quia qui iurat barbarus a possessore pro servandis frugibus accipiat aurum, vel a viatore deductor; sed tamen cum hac veluti mercede quae solet dari a possessore, vel a viatore, iuramentum etiam illud in medio est mortale datum decurioni vel tribuno: quod perturbat me ne polluat, illum qui suscipit barbari iuramentum, vel illa quae custodit barbarus. Quacumque enim conditione, etiam auro dato et obsidibus datis, ut audivi, tamen iuramentum iniquum medium intercessit. Dignare autem mihi definitive rescribere, et non suspense. Quod si ipse scribas dubitanter, ego in maiores dubitationes incidere possum, quam antequam interrogassem. De rebus propter quas impie iuratum sit. 2. Hoc etiam audivi, quia ipsi homines conductores qui praesunt rei meae, iuramentum per daemones suos iurantibus barbaris accipiunt pro servandis frugibus. Si ergo cum illi iurant per daemones suos ut custodiant fruges, non polluunt ipsas fruges, ut si inde manducaverit christianus sciens vel de pretio ipsarum rerum fuerit, coinquinetur, significare dignare. Quid si de iureiurando ambigatur. 3. Item ab alio audivi quod conductori non iuratur a barbaro, et alter dixit quia iuratur conductori. Si etiam falsum mihi dixit ille, qui dixit iurari conductori, si iam pro hoc quod solum audivi, non debeo uti de ipsis frugibus, vel de pretio ipsarum propter auditum solum, quia dictum est: Si autem quis dixerit: Hoc immolatitium est idolis, nolite manducare, propter illum qui indicavit2? Si tamen etiam haec causa similis est causae de immolatitio. Quod si ita est, quid debeo de ipsis frugibus, vel de pretio ipsarum facere? Quomodo quis de iureiurando certior fieri possit. 4. Si debeo requirere de utroque, qui mihi dixit quia non iuratur conductori, aut qui dixit quia iuratur conduttori et dictum uniuscuiusque probare per testes, qui verum dixit de illis duobus, et tamdiu non contingere de ipsis frugibus, vel de pretio, quandiu mihi probatum fuerit si verum dixit ille qui dixit quia non iuratur conductori? Quid si et Christifidelis impie iuraverit? 5. Si barbarus qui per iuramentum suum iurat malum, fecerit illum christianum conductorem, vel tribunum qui limiti praeest, iurare sibi pro fide illi servanda pro custodiendis frugibus, per ipsum iuramentum mortale per quod ipse iurat, si solus ille christianus coinquinatus sit? Si non et illa quorum causa iurat? Aut si paganus qui limiti praeest, iuraverit barbaro pro fide illi servanda per mortale iuramentum, si non coinquinat pro quibus iurat? Si quem misero ad Arzuges, si licet ei iuramentum accipere a barbaro illud mortale; et si non coinquinatur, si susceperit tale iuramentum christianus? Esculenta daemonibus oblata. 6. Si de area trituratoria tritici vel cuiuscumque leguminis, aut torculari, de quo daemoni oblatum est, si licet inde manducare christianum scientem? De lignis e luco ablatis. 7. De luco si licet ad aliquem usus suum christianum scientem ligna tollere? De carnibus forte immolatis. 8. Si quis vadens ad macellum emat carnem quae non sit immolatitia, et cogitationes duas habuerit in corde, quod immolata sit, et non sit immolata, et illam tenuerit cogitationem qua non immolatam cogitabit, si manducaverit an peccat? Possitne quis agere dubia conscientia. 9. Si quis bonam rem, de qua dubitat an bona aut mala sit, si faciat putans bonam, cum tamen putasset et malam, si peccatum adscribatur ei? De esculentis quae falso immolata putentur. 10. Si quis dixerit quod immolatitium est mentiens, et postea dixerit iterum quia mentitus est, et ad fidem vere mentitus est, si licet christianum inde manducare, aut vendere, et de pretio uti ex eo quod audivit? Possitne in necessitate immolatitia edi? 11. Si christianus aliquis ambulans, passus necessitatem, victus fame unius diei, vel bidui, vel multorum dierum, ut iam durare non possit, ita occurrerit, ut in ipsa necessitate famis, in qua sibi videt iam mortem proximare, invenerit cibum in idolio positum, ubi nullus sit hominum, et non possit invenire alium cibum, debet mori aut exinde cibari? Quousque liceat vim vi repellere. 12. Si christianus videat se a barbaro vel Romano velle interfici, debet eos ipse christianus interficere, ne ab illis interficiatur: vel si licet sine interfectione eos repellere vel impugnare, quia dictum est: Non resistere malo 3?De damnis praevisis nec optatis. 13. Si murum possessioni debet christianus tacere propter hostem, et si ille christianus qui fecerit murum, causa non existit homicidii, cum inde aliqui coeperint pugnare, et interficere hostes? Putei ac fontes idolothytis inquinati. 14. Si licet de fonte bibere, vel de puteo ubi de sacrificio aliquid missum est? Si de puteo qui in templo est, et desertum factum est debet christianus bibere? Si in templo quo colitur idolum, puteus ibi sit vel fons, et nihil ibi factum sit in eodem puteo vel fonte, si debet haurire aquam inde christianus, et bibere? De balneis in locis deorum cultui dicatis. 15. Si christianus debet in balneis lavare, vel in thermis, in quibus sacrificatur simulacris? Si christianus debet in balneis, quibus in die festo suo Pagani loti sunt, lavare, sive cum ipsis, sive sine ipsis? De balneis ubi idolis sacrificetur. 16. Si in solio ubi descenderunt Pagani ab idolis venientes in die festo suo, et aliquid illic in solio sacrilegii sui fecerint, et scierit christianus, si debet in eodem solio descendere? De carnibus immolaticiis. 17. Si christianus invitatus ab aliquo appositam habuerit carnem in escam, de qua dictum fuerit illi quia immolatitia est, et non manducaverit eam; postea autem ab aliquo translatam ipsam carnem aliquo casu invenerit venalem, et emerit eam, aut appositam habuerit ab aliquo alio invitatus, et non cognoverit eam, et manducaverit, si peccat? De oleribus ethnicorum templorum. 18. Si de horto vel de possessione idolorum vel sacerdotum eorum debet christianus sciens olus emere, vel aliquem fructum, et inde edere? Sane de iuramento, vel de idolis, ut laborem non patiaris in requirendo, quae Domino donante invenerimus, ante oculos tuos volui proponere: si quid autem aliud apertius aut melius in Scripturis inveneris, dignare mihi significare. Unde quae invenimus, haec sunt ubi Laban dixit ad Iacob: Deus Abraham et Deus Nachor 4; quem autem Deum, non significavit Scriptura. Et iterum: Abimelech quando venit ad Isaac ubi iuravit, vel qui cum illo erant 5; sed quale iuramentum, non significavit Scriptura. Iterum de idolis, ubi ad Gedeon dictum est a Domino in libro Iudicum, ut de vitulo quem occiderat holocaustum faceret 6. Et in Iesu Nave de Iericho, ut omne aurum, argentum, et aeramentum inferretur in thesauris Domini, et sanctum vocatum est de civitate, quae anathema est 7. Et quid est illud quod in Deuteronomio positum est: Non inferres abominationem in domum tuam, et anathema eris, sicut hoc ipsum est 8? Dominus te servet: saluto te; ora pro me.